Leviathan

Leviathan

by

Thomas Hobbes

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Leviathan: Chapter 11 Summary & Analysis

Summary
Analysis
Next, Hobbes discusses manners, by which he does not mean behaving in an appropriate way, like saluting others or practicing good hygiene. Instead, manners are the qualities people possess that allow them to live in peace and unity with others in a continual search of happiness. Happiness, or felicity, is progress to some desired end; thus, people’s voluntary actions tend to be focused on obtaining that which will make their life content. These actions differ only in the passions they arise from and the knowledge and opinions that produce each passion.
Again, Hobbes’s understanding of human behavior is grounded in self-interest. People ultimately do what they believe will make them happy, not what is best for people as a whole. This assumption again dismisses Aristotle’s understanding of human nature, which argues that people are generally social and helpful in relation to others. Hobbes disagrees. To Hobbes, people are generally interested only in their own needs.
Themes
Nature, War, and Civil Society   Theme Icon
Reason, Fact, and Philosophy  Theme Icon
Quotes
According to Hobbes, each person has a desire for power that ceases only in death, and wealth and honor through the killing or subduing of another is one way to obtain such power. However, Hobbes argues, “Desire of Ease, and sensual Delight” lead people to obey a common power in the form of civil obedience. Fear of death and wounds also lead people to civil obedience, as does a desire for knowledge and peace.
This passage is the crux of Hobbes’s argument concerning the creation of civil society and common-wealths. People ultimately transitioned out of nature into common-wealths, Hobbes says, due to fear and a desire to live a life outside of that fear. By banding together in a common-wealth, people no longer have a reason to fear each other, as their power is combined and can now protect them from larger powers.
Themes
Nature, War, and Civil Society   Theme Icon
Power, Common-wealths, and Monarchies Theme Icon
Fear  Theme Icon
Those with a strong opinion of their wisdom who impose that wisdom on the government of a common-wealth are said to have ambition, and articulate people have a tendency to have ambition. Timidity disposes one to indecision, but eloquence implies wisdom and kindness. An ignorance of science and the causes of events can lead one to rely too much on other people’s perspectives, because such people lack their own opinions. Ignorance, or a complete lack of understanding, can cause one to put trust in nonsense.     
Hobbes repeatedly claims that being eloquent and articulate is essential in philosophy. Without the ability to command attention, one’s philosophy cannot be heard and valued. Hobbes implies here that it is basically ignorance that allows people to believe in Holy Scripture. While Hobbes does not explicitly mention religion or scripture here (or in other places), religion was a major aspect of 17th-century English society, and the implication is always present. 
Themes
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Religion Theme Icon
Reason, Fact, and Philosophy  Theme Icon
Ignorance of the causes and structure of rights and laws disposes a person to accepting custom and example as the rule, and they tend to think an act is unjust just because it is customary to punish such actions. Likewise, those who are ignorant of the cause and structure of rights and laws tend to believe an action is just simply because lawyers think so. “Right and Wrong is perpetually disputed,” Hobbes says, “both by the Pen and the Sword.” Those who are ignorant of distant causes believe all events are “instrumental,” as such causes are the only causes they perceive. Living in ignorance of natural causes makes a person gullible, and they are apt to believe any number of impossibilities.
Hobbes implies that those who buy into Holy Scripture and religious doctrine are gullible compared to those who are educated and aware of the causes of things. This perspective also implies that those who seek religion are actually seeking an understanding of natural causes. For Hobbes, there are no definite examples of right and wrong (except for those outlined by God), which is why right and wrong are “perpetually disputed” by writers (“the Pen”) and nations and soldiers (“the Sword”).
Themes
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Religion Theme Icon
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Anxiety over future events can give a person the desire to know about the natural causes of things, as can curiosity and a love of knowledge. Still, Hobbes argues that few people question the causes of things because of the fear that comes from ignorance itself and the “severall kinds of Powers Invisible” that have created numerous gods to fear. This fear of invisible things is called religion, and those who observe religion have formed it into laws. Such laws are infused with personal opinion and are used to govern others and obtain power.
This passage can be understood using the example of an eclipse. A solar eclipse to an uneducated person may seem like an act of God. This assumption causes fear and keeps one from truly discovering the natural cause of a solar eclipse, which, according to Hobbes, has nothing to do with God. In this way, a fear of “Powers Invisible” (God) keeps people in ignorance and easier to control through laws.
Themes
Nature, War, and Civil Society   Theme Icon
Power, Common-wealths, and Monarchies Theme Icon
Religion Theme Icon
Fear  Theme Icon
Literary Devices