Themes
Key
LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in Leviathan, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work.
Nature, War, and Civil Society
Power, Common-wealths, and Monarchies
Religion
Fear
Reason, Fact, and Philosophy
Summary
Analysis
A command is when one says to another: “Do this,” or “Do that.” A command benefits the one who makes the command, and it is given for no other reason than the will of the commander. Counsel, on the other hand, is when one says to anther: “Do this,” or “Do that,” but they say it for the benefit of the one they counsel. Another difference between commands and counsel is that one who is commanded is obligated to do something, whereas one who receives counsel is not obligated to follow said counsel.
A command is usually given by a sovereign power (or any public minster with power over a subject) and cannot be refused. Counsel, however, is similar to the advice given by a sponsor or lawyer. In the event of counsel, a subject is not required to follow the advice given. A command given by a sovereign is never counsel and must always be followed.
Themes
“EXHORTATION, and DEHORTATION,” Hobbes explains, is “Counsell vehemently pressed.” Counsel under exhortation and dehortation is for the benefit of the counselor, not the one seeking counsel. Such behavior is a contradiction to a counselor’s duties, as, by definition, a counselor has a duty to regard the benefit of the one who seeks their counsel.
Here, Hobbes implies that counsel via exhortation is not lawful, as such counsel is not in the best interest of the subject being counselled. On the other hand, a command that is given using fear or exhortation by a sovereign power is lawful and must still be followed.
Themes
The difference between command and counsel can also be seen in Holy Scripture. “Sell all though hast; give it to the poore; and follow me” is an example of counsel, since the reason to give said counsel is the benefit of the people. “Go into the Village over against you, and you shall find an Asse tyed, and her Colt; loose her, and bring her to me” is a command, since it benefits the one who makes the command.
Again, as Hobbes’s audience is overwhelmingly Christian, the inclusion of Holy Scripture in Leviathan puts Hobbes’s argument into terms his audience is familiar with and can easily understand. Here, Hobbes cites Matthew 19:21 and 21:2 to illustrate his argument.
Themes
There is also a difference to be found between “apt, and inept Counsellours,” Hobbes says. The virtues and defects of a single counselor are the same as the virtues and defects of the intellectual that Hobbes outlines earlier in the book; however, a “good Counsellour” is one whose ends and interests are the same as those whom they counsel. A good counselor also makes their advice known in clear and understandable speech that does not rely on inference or assumption. Yet a counselor can only be deemed “good” if they give advice in business they are well-versed and studied in.
As there is not one accepted definition of “good” (what is considered good in any given common-wealth is up to the sovereign power), Hobbes specifically defines what a “good” counsellor does in relation to the common-wealth. A good counselor must be well-versed in their field, meaning they must have plenty of experience and prudence with which to advise another.
Themes
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If there are fail-safe procedures in the doing of any one thing, as there are “in Engines, and Edifices, [and] the rules of Geometry,” Hobbes says, “all the experience in the world cannot equall his Counsell, that has learnt, or found out the Rule.” Additionally, If a counselor wishes to give counsel to a common-wealth, it is necessary that the counselor speak the same language as the common-wealth. And lastly, if any one person or entity such as a common-wealth has more than one counselor, it is best to hear them separately, so they do not influence or encourage each other. In short, one who does business with the help of many informed and experienced counselors does it better than those who do not seek counsel.
Experience does not necessarily mean one has learned all the rules of any given field, which is why Hobbes argues that philosophers, or anyone else claiming to have knowledge over others, must have both practical experience and knowledge from books and study. Either books or experience alone are insufficient. A sound counselor, like a sound philosopher, must have both knowledge through education and experience.
Themes
