Stamped from the Beginning

In 1800, two enslaved people in Virginia—Gabriel and Nancy Prosser—organize a rebellion, aiming to storm the city of Richmond with the help of other enslaved people, poor white workers, and Native Americans. Before they have time to put their plan in action, however, the rebels are betrayed, and Gabriel is captured and hanged. Following these events, a discussion begins among Virginia legislators about the possibility of sending enslaved rebels and other troublesome people to a colony. Jefferson looks into Sierra Leone, which has been functioning as “England’s colony for freed people since 1792.”

The Sierra Leone plan is unsuccessful, however by this point a large coalition of influential leaders—segregationists, assimilationists, anti- and proslavery figures alike—are invested in the prospect of removing Black people from America. In 1816, an organization is formed to help put this plan in action: the American Colonization Society, led by prominent enslavers. Meanwhile, in 1817, 3,000 free Black men attend a meeting at a church in Philadelphia to discuss the prospect of colonization. They express their vehement opposition to the prospect of returning to the “savage wilds of Africa.” Despite being of African descent, these men have internalized the racist ideas about Africa propagated in the society in which they live. They issue a resolution against the American Colonization Society.

Nevertheless, colonization remains unpopular, as enslavers are concerned it will undermine slavery and Black people refuse to consider moving back unless it is accompanied by the promise of freedom. Still, the Slave Trade Act is passed in 1819, providing funds to send Black people back to Africa. By 1824, American colonizers occupy a region they call Liberia, although only 154 Black people initially travel there. Back in America, slave rebellions continue to take place. In 1818, a free Black carpenter named Denmark Vesey begins organizing an “army” of thousands of enslaved people, inspired by the American, French, and Haitian revolutions. His rebellion is due to take place on July 14, 1822.

Before it can take place, Vesey’s rebellion is betrayed by Peter Prioleau, a house slave who is freed as a reward and later becomes an enslaver himself. Despite the rebellion being crushed before it happens, it still terrifies enslavers, increasing support for the prospect of colonization. Increasingly, proslavery literature encourages white people to be “on guard” and remain alert to the threat of Black people rising up to “destroy” white society.

In the debates leading up to the Missouri Compromise of 1820, Jefferson initially remains calm, feeling that the dispute was fairly inconsequential. However, by the time the Compromise is settled, Jefferson is deeply concerned that tensions over slavery could lead to a “civil war.” He begins to fantasize about relocating enslaved Africans to the newly acquired Louisiana Territory, spreading them out in the vast amount of land in the hope that the region could effectively “swallow” the problem of slavery. In Congress, he refused to entertain discussions of abolition, convinced that slavery was too profitable to be eradicated. At the same time, he is also convinced that all human beings are born to be free. He becomes increasingly invested in the idea of sending Black people back to Africa.  

As the colonization movement continues to gain momentum, it takes on an increasingly religious tone, linking it to the Second Great Awakening. Images of a distinctly white Jesus are mass produced in order to endow white people with religious authority. By 1832, every Northern state has moved to officially support colonization, but the idea remains unpopular among free Black people. Many choose to respond by increasing their uplift suasion efforts, including via the first Black newspaper in the country’s history, Freedom’s Journal. The editors are Samuel Cornish, a preacher, and John Russwurm, the third Black person to graduate from an American college.  

Articles in Freedom’s Journal often place blame on poor and working-class Black people for “bringing the race down.” Cornish and Russwurm disagree on the question of colonization and this eventually leads Cornish to resign. While support for the ACS continues to increase, the group never achieves is goal of attaining Jefferson’s backing—despite the fact that Jefferson is certainly in favor of colonization. In 1825, Jefferson suffers from poor health and by 1826, he remains housebound with illness. The last visitor he receives the half-brother of Robert E. Lee, who will go on to lead the Confederate army. Jefferson is too sick to attend the 50th anniversary celebration of the Declaration of Independence.

Aside from Sally Hemings and the children he had with her, Jefferson does not free any of the enslaved people at Monticello. However, by the time of his death, he is so deep in debt that his entire estate is sold after his passing. He dies at home at the age of 83, surrounded by enslaved Black house servants.