Joyce’s Ulysses is famously modeled on Homer’s Odyssey: in addition to naming his book after the Homeric hero Odysseus (or “Ulysses” in Latin), Joyce also titled his chapters (or “episodes”) after different books of Homer’s epic. But despite the significant correspondences between Ulysses and the Odyssey, it would be wrong to treat Joyce’s work as a mere adaptation or reinterpretation of Homer’s work. In addition to the Odyssey, Joyce frequently alludes to hundreds of other famous texts (most significantly, Shakespeare’s Hamlet). These allusions enrich his novel, allow him to investigate the purpose and value of literature, and make a case for including Ulysses alongside the other masterpieces of the Western canon. At the same time, Joyce also questions the value of this canon and asks what kind of literature humankind needs in order to cope with the new conditions of the 20th century (like industrialization, technological progress, secularism, colonialism, and global integration). Through his allusions, his use of literature as a plot device, and most of all his mastery of a wide range of literary styles, Joyce argues for a broader conception of literary value. He suggests that the truest depiction of reality in literature is one that faithfully portrays multiple perspectives on the same question, rather than trying to seek a single truth.
Ulysses is a highly intertextual novel, which means that its meaning depends largely on its constant references to other works of literature. Ulysses cites hundreds upon hundreds of other books, but it’s easy to miss the vast majority of these references because Joyce almost never explicitly points them out and most of them are relatively subtle. (Often, they’ll just involve one significant word or image.) In particular, Joyce focuses on some of the works considered the greatest exemplars of the Western canon, like Hamlet and the Odyssey. The Odyssey provides Joyce with a structure for his novel, but he by no means copies it exactly—for instance, while Gerty MacDowell closely resembles the princess Nausicaa, Molly Bloom’s resemblance to Penelope is somewhat ironic, because Penelope goes to great lengths to stay loyal to Odysseus for years, while Molly casually cheats on her husband. Joyce doesn’t try to simply repeat the tried-and-true formulas that made literary classics succeed: rather, he adapts these classics to his own purposes in order to ask how they are relevant to modern life. Thus, when he draws an analogy between Leopold Bloom’s journey on one ordinary day and Odysseus’s epic journey over a decade, Joyce suggests that average people’s lives are as complex and significant as those of ancient heroes, if readers and writers are willing to take a close enough look at them. Throughout the novel, Joyce repeats this move, using other literature as context and commentary for his characters’ experiences.
On the other hand, Joyce also intentionally subverts literary norms in order to show that they’re subjective and changeable. Sometimes, he pushes his allusions so far that they become parodies. For instance, Stephen Dedalus presents an elaborate theory of Hamlet that doesn’t hold together and that Stephen himself doesn’t even believe. Through Stephen’s theory, Joyce undercuts his use of canonical works as source texts. He mocks both the attempt to try to understand the original meaning of a work of art and the tendency to try too hard to make literature inform life. Most importantly, he uses a variety of different styles and points of view to suggest that literature shouldn’t be held to singular norms and standards at all. Rather than sticking to a fixed, conventional narrator throughout the novel, Ulysses narrates every single chapter through a different voice and perspectives. Many chapters use free indirect discourse, while some of the most famous (“Proteus” and “Penelope”) are stream-of-consciousness soliloquies. “Aeolus” is full of newspaper headlines, “Wandering Rocks” switches perspective eighteen times (like the novel as a whole), and “Circe” is a play. In “Cyclops,” Joyce parodies different styles of popular writing, and in “Oxen of the Sun,” he adopts historical prose styles ranging from Tacitus’s Roman histories to Dickens’s Victorian novels. By using multiple voices, Joyce points out that literary styles are constantly changing and he shows how form shapes content. He also makes a case for his own greatness as a writer, as he proves that he can do everything that any great writer of the past has done. Thus, Joyce doesn’t just incorporate other literature into Ulysses so that he can prove his reverence for the past: he also does so in order to remind the reader that all perspectives are subjective and show that simplistic norms of literary greatness don’t do justice to the complexity of life and literature.
Instead, Joyce suggests that the best way for literature to truly represent reality is by offering multiple different perspectives on it. He frequently presents this idea through the astronomical concept of parallax, which refers to the effect in which different observers will see the same object as located in different places. In a nutshell, parallax simply means that the world looks different to different observers. In the context of literature, this means that a single style or perspective is never enough to get a full view of the world. Instead, Joyce’s multiple styles give a parallax view of the world, and he mocks his own ambition and reverence for great works of the past in order to give a parallax view of those works’ importance. Most significantly, his characters frequently give parallax views of the events in his novel. For instance, the reader hears about Bloom’s proposal from him in “Lestrygonians,” then learns about Molly’s perspective on the same events at the end of the novel in “Penelope.” The best way to understand their relationship is not to choose one of their perspectives over the other: rather, it’s to lay them side-by-side and look at both, even if they don’t necessarily agree. For Joyce, then, literature has to embrace the complexity of multiple perspectives if it wants to provide a more realistic and comprehensive picture of the world.
Related Themes from Other Texts
Literature, Meaning, and Perspective ThemeTracker
Literature, Meaning, and Perspective Quotes in Ulysses
Stately, plump Buck Mulligan came from the stairhead, bearing a bowl of lather on which a mirror and a razor lay crossed. A yellow dressinggown, ungirdled, was sustained gently behind him on the mild morning air. He held the bowl aloft and intoned:
—Introibo ad altare Dei.
Halted, he peered down the dark winding stairs and called out coarsely:
—Come up, Kinch! Come up, you fearful jesuit!
In a dream, silently, she had come to him, her wasted body within its loose graveclothes giving off an odour of wax and rosewood, her breath, bent over him with mute secret words, faint odour of wetted ashes.
Her glazing eyes, staring out of death, to shake and bend my soul. On me alone. The ghostcandle to light her agony. Ghostly light on the tortured face. Her hoarse loud breath rattling in horror, while all prayed on their knees. Her eyes on me to strike me down. Liliata rutilantium te confessorum turma circumdet: iubilantium te virginum chorus excipiat.
Ghoul! Chewer of corpses!
No, mother! Let me be and let me live.
I will not sleep here tonight. Home also I cannot go.
A voice, sweettoned and sustained, called to him from the sea. Turning the curve he waved his hand. It called again. A sleek brown head, a seal’s, far out on the water, round.
Usurper.
—History, Stephen said, is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake.
From the playfield the boys raised a shout. A whirring whistle: goal. What if that nightmare gave you a back kick?
—The ways of the Creator are not our ways, Mr Deasy said. All human history moves towards one great goal, the manifestation of God.
Stephen jerked his thumb towards the window, saying:
—That is God.
Hooray! Ay! Whrrwhee!
—What? Mr Deasy asked.
—A shout in the street, Stephen answered, shrugging his shoulders.
Ineluctable modality of the visible: at least that if no more, thought through my eyes.
The cords of all link back, strandentwining cable of all flesh. That is why mystic monks. Will you be as gods? Gaze in your omphalos. Hello. Kinch here. Put me on to Edenville. Aleph, alpha: nought, nought, one.
Spouse and helpmate of Adam Kadmon: Heva, naked Eve. She had no navel. Gaze. Belly without blemish, bulging big, a buckler of taut vellum, no, whiteheaped corn, orient and immortal, standing from everlasting to everlasting. Womb of sin.
After he woke me last night same dream or was it? Wait. Open hallway. Street of harlots. Remember. Haroun al Raschid. I am almosting it. That man led me, spoke. I was not afraid. The melon he had he held against my face. Smiled: creamfruit smell. That was the rule, said. In. Come. Red carpet spread. You will see who.
—Here, she said. What does that mean?
He leaned downward and read near her polished thumbnail.
—Metempsychosis?
—Yes. Who’s he when he’s at home?
—Metempsychosis, he said, frowning. It’s Greek: from the Greek. That means the transmigration of souls.
—O, rocks! she said. Tell us in plain words.
His smile faded as he walked, a heavy cloud hiding the sun slowly, shadowing Trinity’s surly front. Trams passed one another, ingoing, outgoing, clanging. Useless words. Things go on same, day after day: squads of police marching out, back: trams in, out. Those two loonies mooching about. Dignam carted off. Mina Purefoy swollen belly on a bed groaning to have a child tugged out of her. One born every second somewhere. Other dying every second.
[…]
Cityful passing away, other cityful coming, passing away too: other coming on, passing on. Houses, lines of houses, streets, miles of pavements, piledup bricks, stones. Changing hands. This owner, that. Landlord never dies they say. Other steps into his shoes when he gets his notice to quit. They buy the place up with gold and still they have all the gold. Swindle in it somewhere. Piled up in cities, worn away age after age. Pyramids in sand.
[…]
No-one is anything.
—Our young Irish bards, John Eglinton censured, have yet to create a figure which the world will set beside Saxon Shakespeare’s Hamlet though I admire him, as old Ben did, on this side idolatry.
—As we, or mother Dana, weave and unweave our bodies, Stephen said, from day to day, their molecules shuttled to and fro, so does the artist weave and unweave his image. And as the mole on my right breast is where it was when I was born, though all my body has been woven of new stuff time after time, so through the ghost of the unquiet father the image of the unliving son looks forth. In the intense instant of imagination, when the mind, Shelley says, is a fading coal, that which I was is that which I am and that which in possibility I may come to be. So in the future, the sister of the past, I may see myself as I sit here now but by reflection from that which then I shall be.
Fatherhood, in the sense of conscious begetting, is unknown to man. It is a mystical estate, an apostolic succession, from only begetter to only begotten. On that mystery and not on the madonna which the cunning Italian intellect flung to the mob of Europe the church is founded and founded irremovably because founded, like the world, macro and microcosm, upon the void. Upon incertitude, upon unlikelihood. Amor matris, subjective and objective genitive, may be the only true thing in life. Paternity may be a legal fiction. Who is the father of any son that any son should love him or he any son?
Bronze by gold heard the hoofirons, steelyringing.
Imperthnthn thnthnthn.
Chips, picking chips off rocky thumbnail, chips.
Horrid! And gold flushed more.
A husky fifenote blew.
Blew. Blue bloom is on the.
Goldpinnacled hair.
A jumping rose on satiny breast of satin, rose of Castile.
Trilling, trilling: Idolores.
Peep! Who’s in the … peepofgold?
Tink cried to bronze in pity.
And a call, pure, long and throbbing. Longindying call.
Decoy. Soft word. But look: the bright stars fade. Notes chirruping answer.
O rose! Castile. The morn is breaking.
Jingle jingle jaunted jingling.
[…]
Done.
Begin!
The figure seated on a large boulder at the foot of a round tower was that of a broadshouldered deepchested stronglimbed frankeyed redhaired freelyfreckled shaggybearded widemouthed largenosed longheaded deepvoiced barekneed brawnyhanded hairylegged ruddyfaced sinewyarmed hero. From shoulder to shoulder he measured several ells and his rocklike mountainous knees were covered, as was likewise the rest of his body wherever visible, with a strong growth of tawny prickly hair in hue and toughness similar to the mountain gorse (Ulex Europeus). The widewinged nostrils, from which bristles of the same tawny hue projected, were of such capaciousness that within their cavernous obscurity the fieldlark might easily have lodged her nest. The eyes in which a tear and a smile strove ever for the mastery were of the dimensions of a goodsized cauliflower.
Yes, it was her he was looking at, and there was meaning in his look. His eyes burned into her as though they would search her through and through, read her very soul. Wonderful eyes they were, superbly expressive, but could you trust them? People were so queer. […] Here was that of which she had so often dreamed. It was he who mattered and there was joy on her face because she wanted him because she felt instinctively that he was like no-one else. The very heart of the girlwoman went out to him, her dreamhusband, because she knew on the instant it was him.
And she saw a long Roman candle going up over the trees, up, up, and, in the tense hush, they were all breathless with excitement as it went higher and higher […] it went so high it went out of sight a moment and she was trembling in every limb from being bent so far back that he had a full view high up above her knee […] O! then the Roman candle burst and it was like a sigh of O! and everyone cried O! O! in raptures and it gushed out of it a stream of rain gold hair threads and they shed and ah! they were all greeny dewy stars falling with golden, O so lovely, O, soft, sweet, soft!
Deshil Holles Eamus. Deshil Holles Eamus. Deshil Holles Eamus.
Send us bright one, light one, Horhorn, quickening and wombfruit. Send us bright one, light one, Horhorn, quickening and wombfruit. Send us bright one, light one, Horhorn, quickening and wombfruit.
Hoopsa boyaboy hoopsa! Hoopsa boyaboy hoopsa! Hoopsa boyaboy hoopsa!
Universally that person’s acumen is esteemed very little perceptive concerning whatsoever matters are being held as most profitably by mortals with sapience endowed to be studied who is ignorant of that which the most in doctrine erudite and certainly by reason of that in them high mind’s ornament deserving of veneration constantly maintain when by general consent they affirm that other circumstances being equal by no exterior splendour is the prosperity of a nation more efficaciously asserted than by the measure of how far forward may have progressed the tribute of its solicitude for that proliferent continuance which of evils the original if it be absent when fortunately present constitutes the certain sign of omnipollent nature’s incorrupted benefaction.
But was young Boasthard’s fear vanquished by Calmer’s words? No, for he had in his bosom a spike named Bitterness which could not by words be done away. […] Heard he then in that clap the voice of the god Bringforth or, what Calmer said, a hubbub of Phenomenon? Heard? Why, he could not but hear unless he had plugged him up the tube Understanding (which he had not done). For through that tube he saw that he was in the land of Phenomenon where he must for a certain one day die as he was like the rest too a passing show. And would he not accept to die like the rest and pass away? By no means would he though he must.
STEPHEN: Here’s another for you. (he frowns) The reason is because the fundamental and the dominant are separated by the greatest possible interval which …
THE CAP: Which? Finish. You can’t.
STEPHEN: (with an effort) Interval which. Is the greatest possible ellipse. Consistent with. The ultimate return. The octave. Which.
THE CAP: Which?
(Outside the gramophone begins to blare The Holy City.)
STEPHEN: (abruptly) What went forth to the ends of the world to traverse not itself, God, the sun, Shakespeare, a commercial traveller, having itself traversed in reality itself becomes that self. Wait a moment. Wait a second. Damn that fellow’s noise in the street. Self which it itself was ineluctably preconditioned to become. Ecco!
BLOOM: (mumbles) Awaiting your further orders we remain, gentlemen,…
BELLO: (with a hard basilisk stare, in a baritone voice) Hound of dishonour!
BLOOM: (infatuated) Empress!
BELLO: (his heavy cheekchops sagging) Adorer of the adulterous rump!
BLOOM: (plaintively) Hugeness!
BELLO: Dungdevourer!
BLOOM: (with sinews semiflexed) Magmagnificence!
BELLO: Down! (he taps her on the shoulder with his fan) Incline feet forward! Slide left foot one pace back! You will fall. You are falling. On the hands down!
BLOOM: (her eyes upturned in the sign of admiration, closing, yaps) Truffles!
(With a piercing epileptic cry she sinks on all fours, grunting, snuffling, rooting at his feet: then lies, shamming dead, with eyes shut tight, trembling eyelids, bowed upon the ground in the attitude of most excellent master.)
STEPHEN: Non serviam!
[…]
(He lifts his ashplant high with both hands and smashes the chandelier. Time’s livid final flame leaps and, in the following darkness, ruin of all space, shattered glass and toppling masonry.)
(Against the dark wall a figure appears slowly, a fairy boy of eleven, a changeling, kidnapped, dressed in an Eton suit with glass shoes and a little bronze helmet, holding a book in his hand. He reads from right to left inaudibly, smiling, kissing the page.)
BLOOM: (wonderstruck, calls inaudibly) Rudy!
RUDY: (gazes, unseeing, into Bloom’s eyes and goes on reading, kissing, smiling. He has a delicate mauve face. On his suit he has diamond and ruby buttons. In his free left hand he holds a slim ivory cane with a violet bowknot. A white lambkin peeps out of his waistcoat pocket.)
What reason did Stephen give for declining Bloom’s offer?
That he was hydrophobe, hating partial contact by immersion or total by submersion in cold water, (his last bath having taken place in the month of October of the preceding year), disliking the aqueous substances of glass and crystal, distrusting aquacities of thought and language.
What impeded Bloom from giving Stephen counsels of hygiene and prophylactic to which should be added suggestions concerning a preliminary wetting of the head and contraction of the muscles with rapid splashing of the face and neck and thoracic and epigastric region in case of sea or river bathing, the parts of the human anatomy most sensitive to cold being the nape, stomach and thenar or sole of foot?
The incompatibility of aquacity with the erratic originality of genius.
He kissed the plump mellow yellow smellow melons of her rump, on each plump melonous hemisphere, in their mellow yellow furrow, with obscure prolonged provocative melonsmellonous osculation.
I was a Flower of the mountain yes when I put the rose in my hair like the Andalusian girls used or shall I wear a red yes and how he kissed me under the Moorish wall and I thought well as well him as another and then I asked him with my eyes to ask again yes and then he asked me would I yes to say yes my mountain flower and first I put my arms around him yes and drew him down to me so he could feel my breasts all perfume yes and his heart was going like mad and yes I said yes I will Yes.
