Themes
Key
LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in Wolf Hall, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work.
Power, Ambition, and Deception
Poor Leadership and Violence
Children and Human Connection
Dogmatism vs. Open-Mindedness
Myth and Storytelling
Summary
Analysis
Cromwell is speaking with Katherine in her chambers, and he notices that her daughter Mary Tudor seems to be in a lot of pain—“she is shrunken into herself, and her eyes are the color of ditch water.” He tells Katherine to have her daughter sit, and he places a stool, “with a decisive thud,” by Katherine’s skirts. He overhears Mary telling Katherine in Castilian that “it is her woman’s disorder.” Cromwell notices that the girl’s eyes are “unfocused,” but Katherine orders her to stand straight, “like a princess of England.” Katherine is “rigid inside her boned bodice.”
Cromwell tries to ease Mary’s pain by giving her a stool and asking her to sit, which shows his concern and kindness. Katherine, however, is afraid that her daughter’s illness would convey weakness and refuses to let her sit. Katherine herself is upright and stiff in her “boned bodice,” which symbolizes her own hardness and strength.
Themes
Katherine tells Mary Tudor in English that Cromwell is the man who “now writes all the laws.” Mary says that “[t]hese laws are written against the church.” Katherine says that Cromwell and his friends have found all clergy guilty under the praemunire laws—the same law that Wolsey was accused under—and as a result, the clergy has “to pay a fine of more than one hundred thousand pounds.” Cromwell says that it is not a fine—they call it “a benevolence.” Katherine says she calls it “extortion.”
Katherine is very critical of Cromwell’s role in having the clergy submit to the king. He seems to be slowly achieving his goal of making Henry the sole and uncontested bastion of power in England. Katherine, who is loyal to the Pope, opposes this. She realizes that if the Church loses its power in England, her case against the annulment will also be lost.
Themes
Katherine says that Cromwell and Speaker Audley “induce the king to describe himself as head of the church in England,” and Mary Tudor adds that “the Pope is head of the church everywhere.” Cromwell once again asks Mary to sit down and “catches her just as she folds at the knees.” After lowering her down onto the stool, he says it is the heat, “so she will not be ashamed.” She looks at him with “simple gratitude” for a moment before resuming “an expression as stony as the wall of a town under siege.”
Cromwell kindly catches Mary when she comes close to fainting from her pain, and he blames the heat so she will not be embarrassed. Mary is grateful for his compassion, but immediately after, she assumes her “stony” expression. Even though they share a moment of connection, they hold opposite political viewpoints and so cannot remain allies. Even though Mary is young, she comes across as a strong political force in her own right.
Themes
Katherine says that in order “to soothe the conscience of the bishops,” Cromwell has introduced the clause “as far as the law of Christ allows” while describing Henry as the head of the church. Cromwell says that ancient precedents support the king’s claim, but Katherine insists that they have only been “invented these last months.” She says they are hoping that she will put herself “out of the estate of queen and wife,” and that only Bishop Fisher speaks the truth that “the House of Commons is full of heathens.” Cromwell notices her “little, stubby, puffy hands,” which are empty. Katherine says the king has now “ridden off without a farewell,” which he’d never done before, and Mary Tudor says he has gone with “[t]he person.”
Cromwell and the other “heathens” at the House of Commons seem to be writing laws that give Henry complete supremacy in England, and Katherine is aware that she is being left without support or power if the supremacy of the Pope is no longer recognized. Her empty hands symbolize her lack of power, which is reinforced by the king leaving Katherine “without a farewell” and going off with Anne Boleyn. Katherine is acutely aware that she has lost her hold over Henry—and so is Cromwell.
Themes
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Cromwell says in a soothing voice that he will return in a fortnight, and that in the meantime, Katherine is to head to the More, a residence in Hertfordshire. Mary Tudor says that, since it was the cardinal’s house, it will be “lavish.” Cromwell asks her to “cease to speak ill of a man who never did [her] harm,” and Mary blushes and says she never meant to “fail in charity.” Katherine says she won’t go to Hertfordshire, and Cromwell tries to persuade her by saying that everything is ready for her. Katherine insists that she will write to Henry to say that her place is by his side. Cromwell advises her to “take this gently.” Otherwise, Henry might separate Katherine and Mary. Cromwell notices that “the child is fighting down pain” and her “mother is fighting down grief and anger, and disgust and fear.”
This situation is a victory for Cromwell, since Henry seems to be closer to getting his marriage annulled and marrying Anne Boleyn. However, Cromwell doesn’t enjoy this difficult task—he can’t help noticing Katherine’s and Mary’s pain. He has tried to help Mary with her physical pain, but he knows there is essentially nothing he can do for Katherine, which foreshadows how his political ambitions will conflict with his empathetic nature.
Themes
Outside, Wriothesely, Rafe, and Gregory are waiting for Cromwell. He tells them that he told Katherine that Henry might separate her from Mary, and Wriothesley is surprised that Cromwell doesn’t know that it has already been decided that they are to be separated. He knows this from Stephen Gardiner. Rafe says it is harsh to “use the little girl against her mother,” and Cromwell admits it is, but he says that after one chooses one’s prince, it is one’s job to “say yes to him—yes, that is possible, yes, that can be done.” He says one can go abroad to find another king if one disagrees with Henry, but he is sure that “if this were Italy, Katherine would be cold in her tomb.”
Cromwell believes that it is not his place to question the king’s desires; it is his job to get things done. Cromwell defends Henry by pointing out that other monarchs might have murdered their first wives in order to take on a second, and that Henry is not resorting to this. Like Wolsey, who often defended Henry’s actions, Cromwell’s defense of the king doesn’t seem completely honest and instead seems to be a way for him to convince himself to keep doing the things he is asked to.
Themes
Gregory asks whether Cromwell would work to bring about Katherine’s death. Cromwell stops and “takes his son’s arm” and asks him to “retrace [his] steps through this conversation.” Gregory tries to pull away, but Cromwell persists. He says that Henry would never require him or anyone else to ever do such a thing since he isn’t “a monster.” He says Henry has “a heart full of feeling” and is “the most scrutinized soul in Christendom.” Wriothesley tells him that Gregory is his son, “not an ambassador,” and Cromwell lets go of him.
Again, Cromwell defends Henry passionately—but he also seems to speak out of fear. If Gregory were overheard, statements like these might get him killed, which is why Cromwell asks him to think carefully about the things he says. Ironically, Cromwell claims that Henry would never require him to have someone killed—but history shows that Henry does eventually ask Cromwell to have Anne Boleyn executed for treason and adultery.
Themes
For New Year’s, Cromwell gets Anne Boleyn a present of Venetian forks, and he gets a book of needlework patterns for “the little girl who always cries.” Anne tells him “Pasty-face” has gone from court since her family has been the subject of gossip and disgrace. Her father, John Seymour, was caught sleeping with his daughter-in-law Catherine Fillol, who is married to his son Edward Seymour. Anne says “Milksop” might end up in a nunnery since no one will marry her now after the tales about “those sinners at Wolf Hall” have gotten out.
Cromwell is very fond Jane Seymour, probably because she is quiet and naïve, unlike the courtiers who surround her. He had previously thought of her as being as sweet and pure as a lily. Anne is critical of the girl’s father’s behavior, which seems uncivilized, like the behavior of wild animals, and matches the name of his residence, Wolf Hall. Ironically, though, King Henry himself will eventually marry Jane—after having Anne herself executed.
Themes
In February, a priest named Thomas Hitton is accused by Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, of smuggling Tyndale’s books, and he is burned as a heretic. More works on rounding up more heretics and he tortures them in the Tower until they disclose the names of everyone else involved in their operations to smuggle forbidden books into England. In March, Lucy Petyt, whose husband John Petyt, a grocer, has been arrested by More, comes to see Cromwell to ask him to appeal to either the king or Anne Boleyn on behalf of John. Johane tells Lucy that the Petyts were “the first to throw calumnies at the cardinal,” and that they brought this situation on themselves. After Lucy leaves, Johane seems upset as she tells Cromwell not to help them and seems worried that John would name Cromwell if he is tortured.
Even while the king is attempting to shrug off the power of the Catholic Church, Thomas More’s campaigns against heresy are growing more powerful and violent. More single-mindedly pursues his goal of rounding up those who harbor anti-Catholic sentiments and sees no problem in torturing them for information. In contrast to More, Cromwell feels guilty whenever he causes anyone pain, even if he does so in the course of serving the king. Many of the so-called “heretics” are those who smuggle in banned books and read them—both of which Cromwell does. Johane knows this, and so she worries that he, too, might be imprisoned for heresy if he isn’t careful.
Themes
Cromwell asks Anne Boleyn to help John Petyt, saying that she knows “how to please the king.” Anne makes a joke that she can’t trade her “maidenhead for a grocer.” Cromwell tries to talk to Henry about it, but the king “gives him a blank stare and says [More] the Lord Chancellor knows his business.”
While Anne Boleyn and Henry value Cromwell’s ideas and suggestions when they need his help, they have no interest in helping him. Cromwell once again sees the difference between Henry and Wolsey. When Cromwell appealed to Wolsey to help Little Bilney when he was being held for heresy, Wolsey immediately promised Cromwell that he would do his best to help him out. Henry, on the other hand, is not being personally inconvenienced by More’s actions yet, and therefore he is uninterested in getting involved.
Themes
Cromwell met Tyndale in Antwerp that past spring, and Tyndale had wept, saying he was tired of being hunted and wanted to go home to England. Tyndale had only wanted the king to agree to “let the people of England hear the gospel” in their mother tongue. Henry hasn’t said that he will never allow a translation, since he knows Anne Boleyn wants the translation and he wants to please her. However, by summer, Cromwell realizes that “Henry is too timid, [and] Tyndale too intransigent,” and he abandons this project. He thinks that “More, Tyndale, they deserve each other, these mules that pass for men.” Tyndale refuses to openly support Henry’s divorce, as does Luther, and Cromwell cannot comprehend why they cannot “sacrifice a fine point of principle, to make a friend of the King of England.”
Cromwell understands that Henry is too “timid” to oppose More and his supporters. Henry enjoys being liked, and because of this, he likes to upset as few people as possible—unless their actions affect him directly, in which case he responds in a fury. But Henry lacks the courage and will to make trouble for a cause that doesn’t directly affect him. Cromwell finds himself equally frustrated with More and Tyndale, since they both absolutely refuse to compromise on their beliefs even when it would be practical to. If Tyndale were to voice his support of Henry’s marriage publicly, Henry would be happy to welcome him back home—and yet, Tyndale refuses to do. Cromwell cannot comprehend Tyndale’s insistence on sticking to his principles in the face of danger to his life; for Cromwell, it’s second nature to say things he doesn’t really mean in order to get what he wants.
Themes
Cromwell is teaching a boy called Thomas Avery his trade, and the boy spends time in Antwerp with Cromwell’s connections there. He brings Cromwell a note from Tyndale which has been sewn into the lining of a jacket, in which Tyndale writes that he doesn’t believe he can ever come back to England as long as More “is alive and in office,” even if Anne Boleyn is queen and the king guarantees Tyndale’s safety. Avery expresses concern for his own safety, and Cromwell “curls [his hand] loosely into a fist” and says that if More comes near “[his] people,” he will “drag him out of his court at Westminster and beat his head on the cobbles” until he knocks into him “some sense of the love of God and what it means.”
Tyndale seems to have rightly guessed that Henry will do nothing to save him if More is determined to get him. Like Cromwell, Tyndale knows that the king is too “timid” and apathetic to concern himself with other people’s problems. While Cromwell usually detests the notion of violence, the thought that More might arrest members of Cromwell’s household fills him with rage. He is also irritated that More uses religion to justify his violent deeds. More views religion through a narrow lens and considers anyone who breaks with religious doctrine to be a heretic who deserves to be tortured and killed. Cromwell, in contrast, seems to have a more generous interpretation that God’s love means kindness and generosity—the opposite of violence.
Themes
Meanwhile, Cromwell knows that nothing good can come out of “the piece of folly” with Johane and thinks that it has to stop. While she used to make excuses to be where he was, she has now taken to avoiding him, so he thinks that she knows it, too. She tells him that their relationship “seems like part of the past,” and that he should marry someone else if he wants to marry again. She admits that she would marry him “without question” if her husband died, but that “the church wouldn’t allow it.” Cromwell says she can’t be sure of that. Johane says she has heard that he plans to “make the king head of the church” and “break the bishops” and “take away revenues from the Holy Father,” after which the king can say “who can be married,” and then Mary Tudor “will be a bastard.”
Interestingly, if Henry were to become head of the church and actually have a say about marriages, it would have a direct bearing on Cromwell’s life. Since Johane is his sister-in-law, the Catholic Church would view their relationship as incestuous, but Henry might be able to change that. This incident highlights the fact that while the king’s relationship is in the limelight, there are many other people whose lives would be drastically affected by the power shifts that are about to take place.
Themes
Cromwell says that “if the Pope were to concede to the king’s wishes,” then they wouldn’t take away his revenues. He says the only thing that Henry wants is “Anne [Boleyn] in his bed,” and he’s used to having his way. Johane is surprised that Henry will “take the money of Christian people,” since he is rich. Cromwell says she is wrong—the “king is poor.” While he wanted for nothing while Wolsey was alive, now, Henry Norris, who is “the bane of [Cromwell’s] life,” has too much control over the revenue. Johane says that if “Henry [the] pauper king” ever wants his supper, he can come to their house. Cromwell tells Johane that he would like to give her fine things—like mirrors, since she is “a woman worth looking at.” He can tell she is pleased to hear this, and they part as friends.
When Cromwell is faced with the challenge of breaking off his relationship with Johane, he does it with kindness and consideration. He also knows exactly what to say flatter her into happiness even as he makes it clear to her that their relationship is in the past. While the novel usually shows Cromwell’s eloquence at court, here it shows that his talent for saying the right things is a great advantage to him in his personal relations, too.
Themes
In the summer of 1531, there is a comet that people think is a sign of bad things to come. In August, Anne Boleyn tells Cromwell that Gardiner is to get Winchester, which was Wolsey’s richest bishopric. She says she wishes Cromwell were Secretary instead of Gardiner, but he says it is still too early for that. Anne also gives him the news that Little Bilney was burned for heresy and says he was a fool. She says that “[p]eople must say whatever will keep them alive, till better times come.”
Anne Boleyn seems to take Cromwell’s side in the ongoing rivalry he has with Gardiner. Cromwell knows he isn’t yet in a place to take on Gardiner’s role as Secretary, though he implies he might be, in the future. As Anne discusses Bilney, she seems to echo Cromwell’s sentiments that people should put aside their principles and say what they need to in order to stay alive. Their hardnosed practicality is yet another way in which Cromwell and Anne and similar.
Themes
During Michaelmas term, Cromwell is inundated with work and petitioners with appeals. Groups of Londoners begin to gather at the gates of Austin Friars, pointing at the famous people who walk in. Cromwell looks down on this crowd and “put[s] on a mask.” Cromwell has “had his face arranged” ever since he was sworn into the king’s council. He watches “the faces of other people, to see when they register doubt, reservation, rebellion—to catch that fractional moment before they settle into the suave lineaments of the courtier, the facilitator, the yes-man.”
Cromwell has become famous and powerful, and he is careful to always “put on a mask” so his true thoughts and feelings are hidden from the world. He knows that other people will try to use his vulnerabilities to manipulate him, which is why he is careful to hide them. He, too, looks for the signs of other people’s true feelings before they “arrange their faces” to play the roles they are meant to. It’s clear here that the game of power relies on constant deception.
Themes
Rafe worries that Wriothesley can’t be trusted, but Cromwell says that he understands “unprincipled men” like him. Wriothesley has seen both Gardiner and Cromwell rise in the world, and he can’t decide whom he should support—Cromwell completely understands his confusion and his desire to stay on good terms with both of them. Instead, Cromwell worries about men like his friend from Antwerp, Stephen Vaughan, who promises Cromwell his devotion—this makes him “[l]ess calculable, [and] more dangerous.”
Cromwell freely admits that Wriothesley is “unprincipled,” but this doesn’t bother him like it troubles Rafe, who is a more honest man than Cromwell is. Perhaps Cromwell recognizes himself in Wriothesley since Cromwell, too, will always choose advancement over honor. While Wriothesley makes sense to Cromwell since he acts rationally, Cromwell doesn’t know how to makes sense of people like Vaughan who act out of emotion. According to Cromwell, emotions make people unpredictable and therefore dangerous.
Themes
In October, Chapuys comes to Austin Friars for dinner. With the household, he speaks “pleasantly of verse [and] portraiture,” and he talks to Rafe about falconry. When he hears that Cromwell is interested in it, too, Chapuys says that Cromwell “plays kings’ games now.” After dinner, Chapuys wonders what Gardiner will achieve in his talks with King Francois, since Francois wouldn’t be interested in supporting the match with Anne Boleyn unless he is offered something in return. He tells Cromwell not to let Anne Boleyn enchant him like she has enchanted the king. Chapuys says that his master, the Emperor, is “a most liberal prince.”
Chapuys seems to be trying to convince Cromwell that his efforts for Henry will certainly fail. He also appears to be trying to get Cromwell to work with the Emperor. Cromwell seems to have made a good impression on Chapuys, too, which is why he is trying to recruit him.
Themes
In November, Sir Henry Wyatt visits Austin Friars. He entertains the household with stories of how he was tortured in the Tower by Richard Plantagenet until the Tudors took power. When he is alone with Cromwell, he asks him to talk to Anne Boleyn about becoming Keeper of the Jewel House. He says that when he had that post, he “had an overview of the revenue.” Cromwell says that maybe his son Thomas Wyatt could ask Anne for him, and Wyatt laughs, acknowledging the joke. He tells Cromwell that he will be retiring from court, and he asks Cromwell to keep a fatherly eye on Thomas and to be the executor of his will, saying Cromwell is the “steadiest hand” he knows. He says admiringly that a year ago, the cardinal almost ruined Cromwell, but that he has bounced back and has his “affairs prospering.”
While many courtiers look down on Cromwell for his inconsequential background and for his association with Wolsey, Henry Wyatt respects Cromwell because he has managed to transcend both these challenges and achieve success in court. He gives Cromwell a valuable tip about which position he should ask for in order to control the kingdom’s revenue, and he also indicates that Anne Boleyn is the channel through which to approach the king. She has certainly become very powerful since she even has a say in assigning courtiers their jobs.
Themes
Anne Boleyn invites Cromwell for “a poor Advent supper” at the close of the legal term. Henry Norris is there, too, and despite his age, he seems to be in love with Anne. Cromwell notices that he trembles in her presence. As Cromwell is leaving, Norris catches him alone and asks if he doesn’t see Anne’s charm, and Cromwell says that he could only love a woman “in whom the king has no interest at all.” Norris asks him to tell his friend Thomas Wyatt this, and Cromwell says Wyatt has already understood this and has learned to “make a verse” from his “deprivations.” Norris says that Francis Weston is also in love with Anne and is jealous of anyone she looks at.
Cromwell is careful to take every precaution for his safety and advancement, which is why he does not even consider Anne Boleyn’s charm or beauty, in case doing so might anger Henry. This is ironic since he seems to have feelings for Jane Seymour—Anne’s pale, quiet lady-in-waiting—and history shows that she will end up becoming Henry’s third wife, after Anne is beheaded for high treason. He claims he could only love a woman in whom the king has no interest, but he seems to be headed in the opposite direction. By this, Mantel seems to be suggesting that danger is always around the corner, no matter how much one prepares for it.
Themes
In December, Thomas More tries three more people for heresy. A barrister of the Middle Temple is tortured and “More himself questions him while the handle of the rack is turned.” More asks him to “name other infected members.” A former monk who has smuggled in banned books is burned, and so is a leather-seller who was found to be in possession of a book by Luther, even though he “was no doctor of theology.” The year goes out with “a pall of human ash hanging over Smithfield.”
Thomas More is resorting to more cruelty while rounding up and torturing “heretics.” He has expanded the scope of his operations to include even commoners who possess the banned books—like the leather-seller—while previously, he targeted officers of the church and wealthy people who were involved in dispersing heretical ideas and books.
Themes
On New Year’s Day, Gregory wakes Cromwell with the news that Thomas Wyatt has been arrested. Cromwell instantly thinks it is More’s work, but Gregory says he has only been arrested for disorderly behavior and a message came for Cromwell to go bribe the turnkey and get him out. Cromwell reluctantly goes with Gregory and Richard, and after some haggling, he gets Wyatt, Francis Weston, and Francis Bryan out.
Since More seems to be terrorizing all of London, there is an air of fear that anyone might be his next victim. Since Cromwell has promised Henry Wyatt that he will watch over his son, he keeps his promise and gets Thomas out of jail even though he is irritated at being woken up in the middle of the night to do so. This shows Cromwell to be a responsible person who values his promises.
Themes
