Themes
Key
LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in Mahabharata, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work.
Dharma
Pursuing Enlightenment
Heroism and Warfare
Grief, Loss, and Mourning
Stories and Storytelling
Summary
Analysis
THE DHARMA OF KINGS. The Pandavas remain by the city near the Ganga for a month to purify themselves. Yudhishthira, saddened to learn that the dead Karna was his elder half-brother, asks the seer Narada why Karna had to die in battle. Narada explains it was fate and that Karna had the choice to side with the Pandavas but decided against it.
The poem continues to explore how war can be tragic but also necessary at the same time. Narada emphasizes that Karna’s death wasn’t arbitrary but a result specifically of his decision to side with the Kauravas, suggesting that while Karna’s death may seem unnecessary, there actually was justice to it.
Themes
Yudhishthira tells Arjuna that he’d like to retire to the forest and perform austerities, but Arjuna rebukes him, saying that it’s the dharma of a king to rule. Bhima agrees with Arjuna, and then Nakula and Sahadeva say something similar. Draupadi encourages Yudhishthira to say something, but he doesn’t, so his brothers continue to give him reasons to continue acting as king. Vyasa, then Krishna, also try to help Yudhishthira overcome his grief. Vyasa recommends Yudhishthira preform a horse sacrifice.
Yudhishthira is known for his devotion to dharma, and so the fact that even he considers abandoning his duties shows how deeply grief can affect a person. Under different circumstances, Yudhishthira’s desire to go perform austerities might be praiseworthy, but Vyasa and Krishna remind Yudhishthira that he must follow the dharma of a king, and this means continuing to act as a leader.
Themes
Yudhishthira finally agrees to put aside his grief. He and the other Pandavas enter Hastinapura, where crowds greet them enthusiastically. Yudhishthira offers up sacrifices for all his slain relatives, and then he appoints his brothers to various positions in his kingdom. Finally, he tells his subjects they can go home.
When Yudhishthira and the other Pandavas return to Hastinapura, it represents a return to order, as the rightful leaders reclaim their kingdom. Yudhishthira honors his dead enemies while at the same time undoing what they did, proving that, as the lord of dharma, he knows how to maintain a careful balance.
Themes
One day, Yudhishthira comes upon Krishna and asks what he’s meditating on. Krishna recommends that Yudhishthira go visit Bhishma, who, despite being defeated in battle and barely alive as he lies on a bed of arrows, knows many things about past, present, and future. Yudhishthira goes to see him with his brothers and a few others. Yudhishthira offers praise to Bhishma, mentioning that Krishna sent him, and in turn, Bhishma offers praise to Krishna. Bhishma is in too much pain from his arrows to talk, so Yudhishthira says they’ll come back later.
Yudhishthira deferred to Bhishma’s wisdom at the beginning of the war, and now he comes to see him again afterwards without animosity. Bhishma’s bed of arrows represents the torment he must endure as a result of his defeat in battle, and yet he endures it, showing his commitment to fulfilling his purpose before he dies, passing on the wisdom he’s acquired with age to help Yudhishthira reign effectively as king.
Themes
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Krishna helps ease some of Bhishma’s pain and confusion, so when Yudhishthira and the others come back to see him, he can now talk at length. Yudhishthira asks Bhishma about the dharma of kings. He asks many questions like how kings should act and why kings have authority to rule. Bhishma responds, saying that kings should be vigorous and fierce but also merciful when the occasion calls for it. Kings weren’t necessary back in the Krita Age, but greed, desire, and passion made leaders necessary.
This conversation between Yudhishthira and Bhishma, which is mostly a monologue by Bhishma, is one of the longest parts of the whole poem, spanning not just the rest of this book, but the next book as well. In many ways, it is a sequel to the Bhagavadgita, focusing less on plot and more on explaining specific moral and religious questions.
Themes
Bhishma talks about dharma in the four stages of life (celibate student, householder, forest-dweller, renouncer). He says that going through these four classes is particularly important for Brahmins but can also be important for Sudras, Vaiśyas, and Kshatriyas. Because a king has so many subjects, he must understand all classes in society.
Bhishma’s speech deals with abstract topics like dharma, but it also provides context for the plot events that have happened so far in the poem. This explanation about different dharma in different stages of life helps explain why, for example, it was at one point dharma for Yudhishthira to disappear into the woods for 12 years, but why it was against dharma for him to do the same after the end of the Kurukshetra war (because he had to stay and fulfill his duties as king).
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Bhishma gives more advice about kingship. He says a king should be liberal and generous but also unafraid to punish those who deserve it. He gives advice on how to pick trusted aides and courtiers as well as practical advice about where in the kingdom to live and how to raise revenue.
Despite fighting on the opposite side of the war from Yudhishthira, Bhishma is wise, and so the implication is that Yudhishthira—and by extension, readers of the Mahabharata—should take his advice.
Themes
Yudhishthira asks questions about the Kshatriya dharma, which seems evil to him due to the violence it requires, but Bhishma explains that war is necessary and is a chance for bravery. Yudhishthira asks more questions about how a king should behave, and Bhishma stresses that a king’s highest responsibility is to protect all creatures. The only area where Bhishma can’t help Yudhishthira is to explain how a king should act when his kingdom is in ruin—for that, Bhishma says, Yudhishthira would just have to trust his instincts.
Bhishma’s advice in this section connects back to the recent Kurukshetra War. Although Yudhishthira has had to face the tragic consequences of war and the grief it can bring, Bhishma is yet another figure in the poem who attempts to justify war despite its cost. Interestingly, although Bhishma himself is in a desperate situation, he can’t advise Yudhishthira what to do if he himself ever faces trouble in his kingdom. This suggests that struggle provides the ultimate test by showing how good or bad a leader’s instincts are.
Themes
DHARMA IN TIMES OF TROUBLE. Yudhishthira asks Bhishma about how to rule a kingdom when it’s in trouble due to an enemy at hand. Bhishma emphasizes good judgement and keeping the treasury full. When dealing with enemies, a king should be naturally distrustful. However, Bhishma praises kings who take in refugees.
While many parts of the poem praise the benefits of austerity, Bhishma specifically advises Yudhishthira to focus on keeping a full treasury, emphasizing how Yudhishthira’s dharma as a king is very different from the dharma of an ascetic.
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Yudhishthira asks Bhishma about how to avoid unintentionally committing sin and where evil originates from. Bhishma says that greed is the origin of sin, and so it’s possible to avoid sin by exercising self-control. They discuss dharma again, which Bhishma says is how you discover the truth, and Yudhishthira opens the discussion to include his brothers and Vidura.
“Sin” in the context of Hinduism means acting against dharma. Bhishma’s advice against greed may seem surprising, given how he praised keeping a large treasury in the previous section, but Bhishma seems to be drawing a distinction between prudent financial decisions and more fanatical greed, like the kind that led Duryodhana into the Kurukshetra War.
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Yudhishthira goes back to questioning Bhishma, asking what type of people make good friends. Bhishma advises him to avoid ungrateful people and adds that anyone who harms his friends deserves to be shunned.
Friendship runs throughout the poem, perhaps most notably in the relationship between Arjuna and Krishna. Bhishma’s advice to shun ungrateful friends connects back to how the dharma of a leader involves providing good hospitality—and so an ungrateful person fails to show proper hospitality for what they receive.
Themes
THE DHARMA OF FINAL RELEASE. Bhishma advises Yudhishthira that a wise person should follow dharma in order to be released from the current, imperfect world. He advises that wisdom is the most important quality a person should have, even above wealth.
Bhishma’s advice in this passage has strong parallels to Krishna’s advice about acting with detachment in the Bhagavadgita, showing how this idea of attaining enlightenment and leaving behind the current world reverberates through the whole poem.
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Yudhishthira asks about the creation of the universe, and Bhishma tells him that the god Brahma first created the Brahmins. All humans were originally Brahmins, but then new classes arose to fulfill new necessary functions needed to make human society work. Yudhishthira asks religious questions about Vishnu and Krishna, which Bhishma answers.
The fact that Brahmins are the original class helps explain why they are at the top of the hierarchy—particularly with how important elders are in the poem (and how figures who neglect their elders often engage in self-destruction). Still, despite the significance of Brahmins, Bhishma makes it clear that every class in society fulfills a role and that it’s a person’s duty to fulfill the duties of their own class.
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Yudhishthira wants to know about the Yoga of final release. Bhishma says that a person who wants release must avoid impure actions. The highest virtue involves “shunning all sensory objects.” When facing trouble, a king should be steadfast and avoid grief.
Bhishma’s advice about shunning impure actions, while applicable to many people, also applies directly to Yudhishthira’s current situation, in which he’s struggling to overcome his grief. Once again, the emphasis on detachment recalls Krishna’s advice in the Bhagavadgita.
Themes
Bhishma tells a story he heard about Vyasa and his son Śuka. In the story, Vyasa tells his son how to obtain release, including how yogis maintain goodness and avoid passion even in their dreams. Bhishma says more about dharma, giving yet another definition of it: “conduct of the virtuous,” based on the Vedas and other traditional teachings. He emphasizes the importance of faith.
Although this section of the poem doesn’t do much to advance the overall plot, it still follows the same general structure as the rest of the poem, with broad summaries at the beginning followed by more detailed descriptions later. Here, Bhishma expands on the concepts of detachment and dharma, giving more specific examples of how to live a better life.
Themes
As he talks more about dharma, Bhishma notes that sacrifice is an important part of dharma, and for a Brahmin, non-violence is a type of sacrifice. On the other hand, chasing sensual pleasure is the opposite of dharma.
Bhishma’s advice about non-violence is complicated, particularly given how he praised the necessity of war in an earlier passage and how the poem has introduced some “warrior Brahmin” characters who fulfill their dharma through fighting. Nevertheless, this passage still conveys the value of nonviolence by framing it not as inaction (which is bad) but as a kind of sacrifice (which is good).
Themes
Yudhishthira asks why he had to kill so many friends and family members as well as what role sorrow plays for humans. Bhishma cites old writings and stories about how pleasure can lead to desire and sin, noting that sometimes unpleasurable experiences are necessary. Yudhishthira then asks about the best ways that he, as a king, can prepare for his next life. Once again, the answer is dharma.
Following dharma means doing one’s duty, and in this passage, Bhishma makes it clear that fulfilling one’s duty may involve unpleasant experiences. Once again, Bhishma indirectly justifies the Kurukshetra War while at the same time acknowledging the immense devastation that the war caused.
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Yudhishthira asks about Samkhya and Yoga, two major schools of thought. Bhishma says that followers of Yoga don’t believe a nonbeliever can ever find release, whereas followers of Samkhya believe even those who don’t believe in the gods can free themselves with the right knowledge. Both schools are valid, with Samkhya putting more focus on texts and Yoga putting more focus on other evidence.
Yudhishthira and Bhishma get more detailed as they discuss specific theological issues. Although Hinduism has foundational sacred texts like the Vedas and the Mahabharata, Bhishma advises against focusing on only one type of knowledge, showing how both texts and lived experience can ultimately help a person acquire knowledge and lead a richer spiritual life.
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Yudhishthira asks if it’s possible to escape old age and death. Bhishma replies that nothing can stop the passage of time, which inevitably takes away human lives. He adds that sometimes life can be unpredictable, with the foolish succeeding and the wise failing.
This passage is yet another one from Bhishma’s speech that describes the Kurukshetra War in brief. It provides yet another description of the destruction and suggests that death is inevitable anyway. The section also notes that it’s occasionally possible for foolish figures to succeed in war—at least temporarily.
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Bhishma then tells Yudhishthira more about various gods, including how Brahma creates a new universe every cycle, and how Narayana, a form of Vishnu, is the “universal Self.” Janamejaya interrupts the story to praise the parts about Narayana in particular. He asks to hear more about him. Vaiśampayana agrees and tells more about the relationship between Narayana and the seer Narada. Janamejaya comments that Narayana seems to be the religious figure who offers the most benefit in exchange for devotion, since, as the universal Self, Narayana is present in everything.
The universal Self is one of the most important concepts in the poem, connecting introspection and the individual self to something more universal. Some versions of the text translate universal Self as “soul” because it’s the part of an individual that exists beyond their mortal body. This passage emphasizes that contemplation can also be a way to learn more about the world and perhaps even the nature of existence itself.
Themes
Vaiśampayana believes that people have many selves but that they all connect back to the universal Self. He resumes the narrative as Bhishma and Yudhishthira again discuss dharma at different stages of life. Bhishma tells a story about a Brahmin trying to connect with the universal Self and meeting a snake. The snake told the Brahmin about his experiences serving the Sun. In his journeys with the Sun, the snake saw a being who radiated like the Sun, and the Sun told him that this being was someone who had taken a vow to live like a beggar. This inspires the Brahmin to take a similar vow.
According to this passage, the universal Self remains constant despite cycles of death and rebirth that an individual undergoes. Bhishma’s story of the Brahmin and the snake is a little mysterious, perhaps to capture the difficult nature of trying to describe something as complex as the mortal self. Interestingly, this passage praises asceticism, even though much of Bhishma’s earlier advice specifically involved convincing Yudhishthira not to become an ascetic, suggesting that while Bhishma’s speech is partly a reaction to Yudhishthira’s current situation, it also has much broader applications.
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