Themes
Key
LitCharts assigns a color and icon to each theme in Mahabharata, which you can use to track the themes throughout the work.
Dharma
Pursuing Enlightenment
Heroism and Warfare
Grief, Loss, and Mourning
Stories and Storytelling
Summary
Analysis
THE CREATION OF THE CONTINENT OF JAMBU. Janamejaya asks Vaiśampayana to tell him more about how the great heroes of the Kauravas and the Pandavas fought, so Vaiśampayana begins the story. Each side masses its forces in preparation for conflict. Vyasa comes to speak with Dhritarashtra, offering to give the blind king sight so that he can see the battle. Dhritarashtra says he has no desire to see kin killing kin. Instead, Samjaya will tell him about it.
In this striking passage, Dhritarashtra deliberately chooses to stay blind rather than witness the consequences of his decisions. This decision embodies how Dhritarashtra deliberately turns away from knowledge and enlightenment, preferring to remain ignorant. His flaw as a leader is that he refuses to accept responsibility for his actions, and so any regrets that he later offers ring false.
Themes
THE EARTH. Dhritarashtra asks Samjaya to tell him more about the earth and the heavens. THE SERMON OF THE BLESSED LORD. After the first phase of battle, Samjaya tells Dhritarashtra that Bhishma has died. The death is a major blow to the Kaurava war effort. Samjaya begins the story in more detail.
This passage establishes the pattern that the next several books of the poem will follow. Samjaya narrates the events of each day’s battle to the blind king Dhritarashtra (which is inside the frame story of Vaiśampayana talking to Janamejaya, which is itself inside the frame story of Ugraśravas talking to Śaunaka).
Themes
In Samjaya’s recount of the battle, Bhishma urged all his followers that it was dharma to fight to the death. It soon becomes clear that the Pandava force is bigger and stronger, with the Kauravas facing west and the Pandavas facing east. Despite his advantage, Yudhishthira despairs at the size of the Kaurava army, although Arjuna reassures him.
Each day of the battle focuses on different heroes, and the first day, on which Bhishma dies, Bhishma nevertheless proves his worth by showing how, in accordance with the dharma of a warrior, he is willing to put his own life on the line, even against a stronger force like the Pandavas.
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Here begins the Bhagavadgita, a sacred Hindu text that is both a self-contained scripture as well as a portion of the larger Mahabharata narrative. In it, Samjaya tells Dhritarashtra about the moment when the two armies finally clash. As battle begins, Arjuna despairs at how many members of his friends and family he may soon lose, and he temporarily puts down his weapons, but Krishna encourages him to fight by saying that life doesn’t really begin or end, it just passes through different forms. He says it’s Arjuna’s dharma to fight, and so that’s what he must do.
The Bhagavadgita (sometimes also called the Bhagavad Gita or just the Gita) is the most famous and the most frequently read portion of the Mahabharata. It takes the form of a conversation, although much of it is a monologue by Krishna, who provides Arjuna with the motivation and justification to take part in the current war. The Bhagavadgita is a guide for how to lead an enlightened life, and it condenses many of the ideas that run throughout the longer poem.
Themes
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Arjuna is still confused, so Krishna explains in more detail. Krishna says there are two schools of thought: Samkhya philosophers who favor knowledge and yogis who favor action. He advises Arjuna that a distinguished person is one who has the discipline to perform all necessary actions with a sense of detachment. Those who become attached to their actions are deluded into thinking they have more agency than they actually do.
“Detachment” is one of the most important concepts in the Bhagavadgita and in the poem at large. Broadly speaking, it refers to the kind of introspective, reasonable decision-making that Yudhishthira engages in as opposed to the rasher and emotion-driven decisions of Duryodhana. Krishna himself embodies this trait of detachment most of all, always suggesting the most reasonable course of action and refusing to let emotion control him.
Themes
Krishna continues, saying that every creature has its own nature, and it’s better to follow your own dharma than to try to achieve someone else’s dharma. Arjuna asks why anyone would ever commit sin and go against his dharma.
Dharma has already been a major focus of the poem, but in the Bhagavadgita, Krishna explores the idea in even greater detail. He explains why dharma sometimes seems contradictory—since it differs depending on the person. He also adds that dharma applies to all creatures, not just humans.
Themes
Krishna then explains to Arjuna how he has been reincarnated on multiple occasions since the beginning of time. He says that, although it’s difficult, wise seers through the ages have been able to see inaction in action and action in inaction. A person who is free of attachments will have their karma “dissolved.” Sacrifice can be a way to find brahman.
Much of the poem deals with related but opposite concepts: action vs. inaction, dharma vs. adharma, Pandavas vs. Kauravas, etc. This passage begins a discussion on karma, one of the most famous concepts in Hinduism (as well as Buddhism, Jainism, and other religions). Put simply, karma is the result of deeds in one life, which then have a positive or negative effect on rebirth in the next life.
Themes
Krishna explains more, saying that it’s better to act than to renounce action, since brahman requires action. What’s more, inaction doesn’t create karma, and so it doesn’t help an individual achieve brahman. Therefore, detached action is better than complete non-action. To escape the cycle of birth and rebirth, Krishna advises Arjuna to always think of him, since a person who dies thinking of Krishna will “attain” him and escape rebirth. Krishna explains that he is the seed of all living things, and a part of him supports the entire universe.
Krishna’s distinction between detached action and non-action is important. He makes it clear that even ascetics don’t fully stop taking action but instead decide to make sacrifice their action. Also important is the dichotomy in Krishna himself: while he is a mortal man who walks the earth just like Arjuna, he is also much more—the origin of all life as he explains in this passage. A person can achieve a better next life just by thinking of Krishna, emphasizing the role that introspection and knowledge play in Krishna’s philosophies.
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Arjuna asks if he can see Krishna’s true highest form. He does so, showing a form with many mouths and eyes, shining like the light of a thousand suns. Krishna explains that he is “Time, the destroyer of worlds” and that whether Arjuna intervenes or not, all the soldiers he sees on the battlefield will one day be dead. This whole display impresses Arjuna, who trembles and says it’s right for everyone to bow to Krishna. Krishna says that most men and even gods never see his supreme form and that Arjuna is lucky, and then he changes back to his normal mortal form.
This portion of the poem is most famous today for its association with J. Robert Oppenheimer, who quoted it after the detonation of the first nuclear bomb (although in the translation he cites, it is “Death” that destroys worlds, not “Time”). Arjuna himself witnesses something extraordinary in this passage when he sees Krishna’s true form. Krishna’s display shows his trust in Arjuna, although at the same time, Krishna’s reluctance to show is true form suggests that he would prefer to have people reach the truth on their own instead of attempting to show it to them himself.
Themes
Krishna explains many more topics to Arjuna, including how brahman is the womb into which he places his seed. He says all of worldly existence is like a tree. He once again describes renunciation and how a person shouldn’t renounce sacrifice but rather perform sacrifice with detachment. He ends the conversation by reminding Arjuna to fix his mind on Krishna alone. This ends the Bhagavadgita.
Enlightenment, according to Krishna, is all about balance. Detachment means acting without passion, but it also means avoiding the temptation not to act at all. Krishna asks Arjuna to think about Krishna alone not just because Krishna deserves respect as an incarnation of the god Vishnu but also since Krishna himself always strives to live according to the principles that he sets out in the Bhagavadgita—and the rest of the poem will prove this point.
Themes
THE KILLING OF BHISHMA. Samjaya continues narrating battle events to Dhritarashtra. In the story, Yudhishthira alarms his allies by leaving his chariot and walking right toward his enemies with no armor or weapons. Krishna understands, however: Yudhishthira needs to seek permission from his elders to fight, and Bhishma is his elder, even though he fights on the opposite side.
Coming right after the Bhagavadgita, Yudhishthira’s actions provide a good example of acting with detachment—and that is why Krishna understands what Yudhishthira is doing, even as the other Pandavas get worried. As king, it’s Yudhishthira’s dharma to set a standard of conduct for his army, and he chooses to respect the authority and experience of Bhishma, even though they meet as enemies on the field of battle.
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Bhishma praises Yudhishthira for coming to see him before the battle. Yudhishthira asks if Bhishma has any advice for how to defeat him. Bhishma says he doesn’t know of how any man can beat him, since he has a boon that he can choose the time of his death and that time hasn’t arrived yet. Yudhishthira then goes on to speak with Drona and other elders on the enemy side, and they all praise him, despite their differences. Having done his duty, Yudhishthira heads back, put on his shining armor again, and gets back into his chariot.
Yudhishthira puts so much faith in Bhishma’s honor that he asks Bhishma how to defeat him, expecting an honest answer. Perhaps even more surprisingly, Bhishma gives an honest answer, letting Yudhishthira know about the boon Bhishma received to be able to choose the time of his own death. When Yudhishthira puts his armor back on, it symbolizes that he has addressed Bhishma and the others for the last time as family members—from this point onward, they will only approach each other as enemies.
Themes
On the first day of fighting, the battles begin in an orderly fashion before turning into chaos, with everyone on the field of battle. Uttara dies in battle, killed by an elephant, and the first day ends with the Kauravas forcing the Pandavas to retreat. Bhishma and his arrows cause particular damage. The second day is less conclusive, but Bhishma continues to be a powerful force on the battlefield. On the third day, the Pandava army once again experiences major losses, and Krishna decides to kill Bhishma himself, but Arjuna stops him, saying that he will carry out the deed himself.
The death of Uttara, combined with the fierce attacks of Bhishma, both suggest that the war will not be as easy for the Pandavas as some predicted. Krishna, who believes the Pandavas will ultimately win, is almost tempted to break his promise not to fight and kill Bhishma, perhaps believing that keeping his promise is less important than the ultimate goal of securing a Pandava victory. While this might seem to be against dharma, as the incarnation of a god, Krishna’s motivations can be mysterious, and in the end, Arjuna convinces Krishna not to kill Bhishma.
Themes
Arjuna goes on the attack, filling the whole horizon with arrows from his mighty bow. His attacks cause a river of blood and marrow to flow. That evening, the Kauravas lament how many Arjuna has killed.
The apocalyptic imagery in this passage, which goes well beyond what any mortal today could ever accomplish, shows the epic and heroic scale of this battle, particularly for the great warrior Arjuna.
Themes
On the fourth day of battle, Bhishma leads the attack against Arjuna. Meanwhile, Bhima slays so many elephants with his deadly club that he’s covered in blood and fat. Duryodhana responds by sending all his troops toward Bhima. The day once again ends with an advantage to the Pandavas. Dhritarashtra interrupts the story to ask Samjaya why things are going so poorly, and Samjaya simply says it was unwise for Dhritarashtra to start this war in the first place.
Bhima’s club suits his personality—as the most violent brother, he likes to fight close and personal, unlike Arjuna, who prefers to rain destruction from a distance. Dhritarashtra’s confusion about the poor state of the battle draws little sympathy and is perhaps humorous, given how many times he received warnings about what would happen if he went to war with the Pandavas.
Themes
On the fifth day of battle, the fighting resumes, even more noisy and violent than before. Both sides experience massive bloodshed, with Arjuna killing 25,000 charioteers near the end of the day. The sixth day is similarly destructive. Dhritarashtra wonders why his strong, capable army is failing to make better progress. Samjaya says yet again that it’s Dhritarashtra’s fault for starting the war and that it all goes back to Duryodhana’s gambling scheme with Yudhishthira.
The casualty numbers in the war are catastrophic—Arjuna supposedly kills 25,000 enemies on his own in a single day with a bow and arrow. While the Pandava brothers all have flaws that remind the audience that they’re human, on the battlefield, great heroes become something more than regular humans, perhaps aided by gods and celestial weapons, or perhaps simply because they come from a bygone, glorious age.
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Samjaya describes to Dhritarashtra what happened on the battlefield, including the fierce rivalry between Drona and Drupada. Drupada gets injured and has to leave, and Drona continues to terrorize all of the Pandavas. Meanwhile, Bhima and Duryodhana clash in battle.
The battle goes back and forth, with just about every hero on each side having a chance to do something impressive. Despite the fact that the battle is a result of Duryodhana’s pride, the actual combatants on both sides behave well, showing that they understand that the purpose of battle is to win fame through great deeds.
Themes
The seventh day begins with more violence. Bhishma and Yudhishthira lead formations against each other. Arjuna uses the special celestial weapon he got from Indra to slay many foes. Meanwhile, Virata and Drona fight each other. Drona fires a poison arrow that hits Virata’s son Śankha, killing him. After the death of Uttara earlier, Virata has no sons left. Drona’s son Aśvatthaman fights with Sikhandin.
Virata’s willingness to give up both sons to the Pandava cause shows his commitment, reaffirming that, despite his occasional hesitations while the Pandavas were in his city in disguise, he is ultimately an honorable man willing to sacrifice everything.
Themes
The fighting continues throughout the seventh day. In the afternoon, Arjuna kills many of Bhishma’s supporters and heads for Bhishma himself. Bhishma responds later in the day by killing Yudhishthira’s horses.
In this war, killing horses is often the first step to weakening an opponent before going in to attack the opponent himself. The constant presence of horses in battle is a sign of man’s dependence on nature.
Themes
As the eighth day begins, the battle continues to be a stalemate, with each side killing many from the other side, but neither gaining a decisive advantage. A Rakshasa who is still mad about Bhima killing Baka sends illusory horses into battle to confuse the Pandavas. Meanwhile, on the opposite side, Bhima’s Rakshasa son, Ghatotkaca, fights against the Kauravas and Duryodhana, but the day again ends in a stalemate.
The early days of the battle pass the quickest, with only a handful of casualties of named heroes. Samjaya narrates the first several days all together as one chunk—he mentioned Bhishma dying at the beginning of this book, and he hasn’t reached that point in the story yet. The eighth day sees Rakshasha forcing an attack on behalf of each side, providing a sense of balance and showing how the two sides are evenly matched (which is fitting, given that this day ends in a stalemate).
Themes
On the ninth day of battle, the fighting remains intense, with Bhishma and Arjuna being two of the deadliest on the battlefield. Bhishma manages to shower Arjuna’s chariot with arrows, but both Arjuna and his charioteer, Krishna, survive the onslaught. Both Bhishma and Arjuna are seriously injured. But while Arjuna fights with restraint, Bhishma is wildly going all out. At last, Krishna gets tired of waiting and jumps out of the chariot to fight Bhishma bare-handed. Arjuna chases after Krishna and tries to restrain him so that Krishna doesn’t break his promise not to fight. Reluctantly, Krishna goes back into their chariot. Night falls again.
Krishna once again nearly breaks his promise not to join the fight, perhaps suggesting that he is frustrated at how the Pandavas have struggled to win an advantage despite their stronger army. His decision to fight bare-handed seems to show a recklessness that goes against Krishna’s own advice to act with detachment, although, ultimately, Arjuna is again able to persuade Krishna to keep his promise not to join the fighting directly.
Themes
The Pandavas debate how to defeat the formidable Bhishma. At last, Yudhishthira suggests that they should approach Bhishma himself and ask him how he can be killed. The Pandavas visit Bhishma, paying him honor, and he greets them respectfully in return. They tell him he seems to have no weak spot, and they ask him how he can possibly be defeated. Bhishma tells the Pandavas that they’ll never win the war while he’s alive, and so they must strike at him quickly—he gives them permission to kill him.
Yudhishthira has already asked Bhishma how to defeat him, but he tries his luck again and gets a slightly different answer, with Bhishma granting permission for his own death. This strange conversation actually makes perfect sense for Bhishma’s character—he is an honorable man more concerned with fulfilling his duty than with winning, and he has a lot of affection for the Pandavas. For Bhishma, who can see the long term and who values fame, dying in battle is a noble outcome and perhaps even a more desirable outcome than winning on behalf of the rash Duryodhana.
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Bhishma adds that he can’t be defeated in battle but can be defeated after he lays down his weapons. Another option would be for Arjuna to place someone else between him and Bhishma—that way, when Arjuna slays the other person, he can also hit Bhishma.
Bhishma is surprisingly frank about the tactics that the Pandavas can use to kill him. While he is being honorable, there is perhaps also a bit of bravado in his words—the heroic figures in this poem like giving their opponents a fair chance because it increases the potential for their own fame.
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The tenth day of battle begins. Bhishma and Sikhandin fight—Arjuna urges Sikhandin to slay Bhishma, but he isn’t able to. Bhishma strikes back and kills hundreds of thousands of Pandava allies. Drona senses that Arjuna is going to use Sikhandin to kill Bhishma.
Earlier, Bhishma refused to attack Sikhandin because even though Sikhandin is currently a man, he was born female before he received his boon. In this passage, Arjuna seems to be planning to use this fact to bring Bhishma down.
Themes
After ten days of slaughtering Pandava forces, Bhishma becomes tired of living. He calls to Yudhishthira and tells him to place Arjuna in front of him so that Arjuna can try to kill him. But as Sikhandin and Arjuna attack Bhishma, he continues to stay strong and even slays a brother of Virata. Eventually, Arjuna manages to sever Bhishma’s bow, angering him. He then severs Bhishma’s spear. Arjuna and the rest of his army continue to pierce Bhishma with arrows until they fill his entire body. At last, Bhishma falls from his chariot, although he doesn’t allow himself to die yet because it’s an unlucky time of year.
In this extraordinary passage, the great warrior Bhishma seems to just give up, perhaps partly because he doesn’t want to attack Sikhandin. Crucially, Bhishma does not just stop fighting—this would be cowardice and against dharma. Instead, he continues to fight, knowing full well that he can’t defeat the mighty Arjuna and accepting his death regardless. While in one sense, Bhishma “dies” in this passage, in fact, he plays a big role later in the poem because his boon allows him to hang on to life for quite a bit longer, long after the war itself ends.
Themes
The Pandavas celebrate and the Kauravas mourn the downfall of mighty Bhishma. That evening, both sides gather to pay respects to Bhishma, who is still alive and welcomes all of them. He says he has no need for doctors and sends them away. Eventually, both armies go back to their camps for the evening, then come back the next morning, putting aside their weapons to pay Bhishma respect. To honor Bhishma, Arjuna offers him water, splitting the ground with an arrow and giving him water from the purest spring.
At the beginning of the war, Yudhishthira took off his armor to pay respect to Bhishma, so it is fitting that Bhishma’s downfall causes a similar ceasefire, where each army acknowledges the nobility of the other. While this scene is harmonious, it also represents a turning point, and the removal of Bhishma from the battlefield makes the grudges between the Pandavas and the Kauravas more personal.
Themes
On his deathbed, but still not quite dead, Bhishma laments how Duryodhana’s foolishness will be the downfall of the Kauravas. Later, however, Karna (who promised not to fight while Bhishma was alive) asks permission of Bhishma to fight on behalf of Duryodhana, and Bhishma grants it to him.
One reason why the battle becomes more vicious after the defeat of Bhishma is that Karna personally resents the Pandavas, particularly Arjuna, whom he has long been planning to kill. Karna brings his passion onto the battlefield—the opposite of the detachment that Krishna recommended and that Bhishma embodied.
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